How Skype Works

Skype is a software application that allows you to make free phone calls to more than 75 million people worldwide, and shockingly cheap calls to practically everywhere else on Earth! As a result of that, Skype has become the fastest growing service in the history of the Internet. Recently, the company was acquired by eBay, another step forward towards achieving the final goal of making Skype the world's largest communication company.

Skype is easy to install and use. It allows its users to make crystal clear calls, regardless of their location, send instant messages, switch seamlessly between text and voice communication, make video calls, conference calls, transfer files, call landlines and cell phones for a fraction of the cost of a traditional call. Skype is truly making a revolution in the way we communicate.

But how does it actually work? This article focuses on describing the Skype network and the technology behind it.

How Skype Works

Skype is a type of peer-to-peer Voice-Over-IP client, based on the Kazaa file sharing program. The developers of Skype claim that it provides better voice quality than similar applications like MSN and Yahoo Messenger. It also encrypts calls end-to-end.

There are two types of machines in the Skype network - ordinary host (Skype Client) and Super Node (SN). An ordinary host is the computer of a regular user who has the application installed and connects to the network in order to communicate with other users. The Super Nodes are the end-point of ordinary hosts in the network. In other words, ordinary hosts connect to the Super Nodes. Any computer with a public IP and proper hardware configuration can be a SN. An ordinary host must connect to a super node and must register itself with the Skype login server for a successful login. The Skype login server is the only central unit in the whole network. It stores the usernames and respective passwords of all Skype users. Nslookups have shown that this server is located in Denmark. All Super Nodes connect to the login server in attempt to verify the username password of the client. It stores your Skype Name, your e-mail address, and an encrypted representation of your password.

If you are a regular Skype user, then your computer is considered an 'ordinary host' that connects to a Super Node. The Super Nodes are servers, located in different parts of the world. But your Skype client, must know to which SN it has to connect. Therefore, every Skype client (SC) maintains a local table that contains the IPs and corresponding ports of Super Nodes. This is called a host cache and it stored in the Windows Registry of the given SC. So basically, every time you load up Skype, it reads the date from the host cache, takes the first IP and port from there and tries to connect to this SN. If the connection fails for some reason (the SN is offline; it is no longer part of the network, etc) then it reads the next line from the table. In case it fails to connect to any of the IPs listed, the Skype returns a login error upon start-up. Hence, the host cache must contain at least one valid entry in order for the application to connect to the network and work properly. Valid entry means an IP address and port number of an online Super Node. The path to the table in the Windows Registry is HKEY_CURRENT_USER / SOFTWARE / SKYPE / PHONE / LIB / CONNECTION / HOSTCACHE. You can verify that on your computer by opening the Start menu, then click Run and enter 'regedit', without the dashes. Of course, the exact path could be different in the next versions of the application.

As a concept, Super Nodes were introduced in the third-generation P2P networks. They allow improved search performance, reduced file-transfer latency, network scalability, and the ability to resume interrupted downloads and simultaneously download segments of one file from multiple peers. Basically, they help ordinary hosts connect to each other and guide efficiently the encrypted network traffic.

Super Nodes are also responsible for the 'Global Indexing'. This technology enables you to search for other users in the network. The company guarantees that it will find a user if he has registered and has logged in during the last 72 hours.

A very interesting moment about the Skype network is that it 'self-modifiable'. If you have the application installed, your computer may turn into a Super Node, without you even knowing it, because those capabilities don't have a noticeable impact on a computer's performance. SNs basically store the addresses of up to several hundred Skype users, without carrying any voice, text or file-transfer data. In that manner, the more Skype users come online, the more supernodes become available to expand the capacity of the network.

Skype routes the traffic intelligently by choosing the optimum data transfer path. Since it uses either TCP or UDP protocol, it breaks the whole data stream into separate packets, which can take different paths to the end destination. The final arrangement is done at the receiving end.

As far as safety and privacy are concerned, Skype uses Advanced Encryption Standard, known as Rijndel, used also by the U.S. Government organizations to protect sensitive data. Skype uses 256-bit encryption.

The programmers of Skype have implemented wideband codecs which allows it to maintain a good sound quality at a bandwidth of 32kb/s and allow frequencies between 5-8,000Hz to pass trough.

Your list of contacts, the application stores in the Windows Registry. This is called the Buddy list and once again, it is digitally encrypted. So, the list is local for every machine, or in other words, it's not downloaded from the central server.

Let's briefly describe the tasks of the Skype client. First it connects to the network. It then listens on particular ports for incoming calls, refreshes the host cache table, uses wideband codecs, maintains the buddy list, encrypts messages and determines if there is a firewall or not.

The login process:

The login process is the most important one and it consists of several phases. As mentioned, SC must connect to a valid SN in order to authenticate the username and password with the Central Server.

Skype gets the fist IP from the host cache, sends it a UDP packet and waits for response. If there is no response after 5 seconds, it sends a TCP packet to the same IP. It tries to establish a TCP connection to the HC IP address and port 80 (HTTP port). If still unsuccessful, it tried to connect to IP address and port 443 (HTTPS port). If this does not work either, it reads the next address in the HC. If Skype is unable to connect to a SN, it will report a login failure.

The application comes with several build-in addresses of different nodes, called bootstrap super nodes.

If the connection attempt is successful, the client must authenticate the user name and password with the Skype login server, which holds all user names and passwords and makes sure they are unique across the whole network. When the application connects to an SN, it receives an up-to-date list of other active SNs, so it has the most current information.

The Media Transfer process:

The video/voice communication through Skype is established through UDP. The trick here is that quite often, one of the users is behind a firewall or a router, hence it doesn't have a real IP address. But if both Skype clients are on real IPs, then the media traffic flows directly between them over UDP. The size of the voice packet is 67 bytes, which is actually the size of UDP payload. One second conversation results in roughly 140 voice packets being exchanged both ways, or 3-16 kilobytes/s.

If one of the callee or both of them do not have a public IP, then they send voice traffic to another online Skype node over UDP or TCP. The developers of Skype have preferred to use UDP for voice transmission as much as possible.

An interesting fact is that even if both sides are not speaking, voice packets will still be flowing between them. The purpose of these so called 'silent packages' is to keep the connection alive.

Conclusion:

There are several factors responsible for the success of Skype. First of all, the voice quality is better compared to other applications. It works without a problem on computers with firewall. It is very easy to install and use. Skype's security is also a big advantage. Everything that is being transferred across the network is being encrypted to ensure privacy. As a result of that, even if hackers intercept the data being transferred, they won't be able to decode it.

The Skype application does not include any adware or spyware. But, there are cases when third parties have managed to add such functionalities (not only for Skype), so it's really important that you download it from the right place. Therefore, do it either from the official website, or from respected sites as http://www.freesecuredownloads.com/skype/index.html.

How Skype Works
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What is a Therapeutic Community?

I was a staff member at the Ovis Farm Project in Devon, England, for three years. The Project is run on the Therapeutic Community model.

The Therapeutic Community is a self help approach to treatment for people with addiction and related problems. It is a drug-free environment in which people recovering from drug and alcohol addiction are able to live together in an organized and structured way. The aim is to promote change and make possible a drug-free life in the community when they move on.

1. The values of a Therapeutic Community

What is a Therapeutic Community?

The Therapeutic Community believes that people can change and creates an environment that helps to facilitate change. The Therapeutic Community allows a person to grow by fostering an environment where people are valued and accepted.

A strong sense of belonging to a nurturing community in an atmosphere of trust and security, is a central tenet of the therapeutic community. Members of the therapeutic community need to take responsibility for themselves, others and their environment.

Members of the community must be positively motivated to change, and to accept the communitrules.
These rules uphold the values and norms of the community, which are a reflection
of those held by society.

Therapeutic Community principles can be applied to the therapeutic care of a wide range of people

2. The Physical Environment of a TC

Some Therapeutic Communities operate in closed systems like a prison or, say, a nursing home for people recovering from mental illnesses. The residents of these, and similar institutions, may not have a say in whether they enter in institution, but they are generally able to volunteer for the Therapeutic Community. In a prison that operates this model, a separate wing may be used.

Therapeutic Communities operate in purpose-built structures, as well as a range of converted buildings such as schools, churches, or a farm. The size, grounds and design of facilities also vary, but are generally adapted to the types of educational and vocational training offered by the Therapeutic Community. At Ovis Farm the residents were able to work with the farm manager on the work element of the programme. This probably represented one day each week. In its way, it was a unique feature that this project could offer because of its location.

The residential capacity of a Therapeutic Community program commonly ranges from 50 - 150 residents. An ideal size is often described to be in the range of 80 - 120 residents. This suits big institutions but in recent years the Therapeutic Community model has been applied to smaller groups, like Ovis Farm, of maybe a dozen residents.

Therapeutic communities are generally open environments where residents choose voluntarily to live for a period of 6 to 12 months, and in some cases, longer. Although strict limits are placed on residents' comings and goings, residents who comply with all house rules and programme requirements may gradually earn privileges to leave the facility through day, overnight or weekend passes, particularly to visit parents, partners or children.

The key interior spaces in a Therapeutic Community consist of areas where the operational, educational, and therapeutic activities of the program are held. Common spaces include lounges, training rooms, the dining room, and kitchen. Private spaces include administrative offices and conference rooms. The residents have their own private rooms, and some staff may live on site.

3. The Social Environment

Residents take on more responsibility as they learn the concepts of the Therapeutic Community and are able to help fellow residents. It is their understanding and application of the Therapeutic Community concepts that gives a resident more responsibility, not the length of their residency. In this way, the group or peer dynamic is a persuasive influence on residents' desire to become more responsible and accountable.

Residents take on supervisory responsibility in the different departments in the community. For example, one may oversee the kitchens to ensure that the necessary provisions are ordered each week to fill the menu requirements. They would also ensure that the hygiene standards are met, and to help others prepare meals for the community. Another resident may look after the grounds or maintenance work.

4. Resident Profile

Most residents of Therapeutic Communities are considered to have hit 'rock bottom' whether they voluntarily enter a community or arrive through the criminal justice system. Many residents have been drug addicted for years and have a history of criminal activity or other legal problems. Although many residents arrive with a host of health related problems, most Therapeutic Communities stipulate that residents must be healthy enough to undertake physical labour and participate in training programmes and other group-related activities.

The admission process for Therapeutic Community residents should be rigorous. It typically involves an initial visit or phone call, admission to a waiting list, an orientation process, one or more intake interviews, and in many cases, medical, legal and psychological assessments, and consent to treatment. A thorough initial assessment may help reduce the drop out rate which is most critical during the first 30 days.

5. Staff Profile

Staff participate as members of the community. Staff often share everyday tasks with the residents, as well as facilitate group meetings and one to one sessions. Staff are able to express their own reactions to events and situations, and accept challenge or criticism from residents. Many staff members in the smaller communities may have been former residents. In this way the traditional 'them and us' split between professionals and service users is broken down. This helps to develop a sense of trust and intimacy enabling residents to experience different relationships with authority or parental figures. Staff and senior residents are also able to act as role models, by being open and honest. This carries the risk of staff becoming over-involved, which makes staff supervision essential in this way of working.

6. Education and Training

The elements of treatment at the Therapeutic Community typically include addiction treatment, education, primary medical and dental care, vocational skills training (e.g. cooking skills, carpentry, general maintenance, and computer skills), on- and off-site job placement, and in rare cases, on-site resident-run businesses. Christian run Therapeutic Communities will give some opportunity for residents to address their spiritual needs but will not insist that residents are Christians when they enter, or that they become Christians during their stay.

7. The Daily Timetable

Residents can expect a highly structured and demanding daily routine within the Therapeutic Community. The typical day includes a 6:30 or 7:00 AM wake-up call, morning and evening house meetings, job functions, therapeutic groups, life skill seminars, vocational training sessions, some personal time, recreation, and individual counselling when necessary.

Weekend schedules are somewhat less demanding, although Saturday mornings may be taken with group meetings. A Christian run Therapeutic Community may have a commitment to attend a church service on Sundays. This is not just a spiritual consideration, it allows members of the Therapeutic Community an opportunity to increase their support network and generally meet positive people outside of their usual peer groups.

Structure and routine are integral to the daily running of the Therapeutic Community

8. Moving On

The most important part of any recovery programme is probably preparing the resident for 're-entry' into the community. This term sounds a bit like a space craft returning to the earth's atmosphere. In some ways, this is a sound metaphor. If this is not done correctly the resident can burn up and disintegrate rapidly.

Some Therapeutic Communities insist that no resident leaves the program without a full-time job including a place to live and a support network. Family reconciliation is often incorporated into re-entry. Maintaining a drug free lifestyle often means learning more coping skills so it is recognized that moving on is a transitional process. One of the supports most commonly identified as essential to resident success once they leave the Therapeutic Community is transitional housing (a half way house) and affordable longer term housing. This is a major obstacle in the UK (and many other countries) due to lack of good basic accommodation. Many Therapeutic Communities find creative ways of organizing this.

What is a Therapeutic Community?
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Alan J Butler is a Recovery Coach and has worked with recovering addicts and ex offenders for the last 10 years. He spent 3 years living on site as a staff member of the Ovis Farm Project in Devon, England. He is an Associate of Life for the World Trust, an organisation whose aim is to equip the church to reach marginalised people. He holds a Diploma in Coaching & Mentoring from the Institute of Counselling, Glasgow. He welcomes comments at http://www.therecoverycoach.co.uk

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Cell Phone Scanner - A Good Look Into Cell Phone Scanners and How They Work

People who are associated with law enforcement should be familiar with cell phone scanners. These essentially work as tapping devices, allowing the user to monitor phone calls made and received by people who are under surveillance. They intercept phone calls and normally use information from the scanner to further investigate on a suspect.

The mobile phone scanner is a device that is typically used for surveillance by authorities. The use or mere possession of this device by an unauthorized individual is punishable by law so you need to be very careful should you even consider getting one for yourself.

Interceptors and tapping services

Cell Phone Scanner - A Good Look Into Cell Phone Scanners and How They Work

The interceptor is a type of cell phone scanner that can pick up cellular frequencies so the user can listen in on calls that are made within a predetermined range. This device can easily be obtained via mail order. You just need to order the product from a reputable seller in Canada or England.

For cell phone scanners to work, they need a third-party company to provide them with the service. This will enable the devices to record conversations from a particular phone line, including mobile handsets at a given place and time. Scanner services are usually available as call cards that range from 250 to 500 minutes. Retrieving a recorded conversation is simply a matter of logging onto the internet and getting into the records through the access number. Scanner services and mobile phone scanners are useful for recording important calls such as conference calls with business contacts.

Heads-up

Before you purchase cell phone scanners for whatever purpose you might have, you need to verify the legality of even owning one in your state. This will ensure that you're not getting yourself into trouble. Product-wise, you want to go with a scanner that can record and play conversations back clearly.

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Conference Calling: How To Make Better Conference Calls

Conference calls are not the most exciting of activities to participate in. Normal face to face meetings are usually as boring as they are and when you have to join a meeting where you have to deal with only voices on the other end of a telephone, things can become dull. Even video conferencing can be mind-numbing.

However, there are ways to make sure that the conference calling goes on without having half the participants yawning within the first few minutes. The idea is to keep the conference well-organized and take control of the situation.

* Noise levels need to be lowered.

Conference Calling: How To Make Better Conference Calls

Any sound is amplified over the speaker phone. A fan can sound like a raging wind, and the sound of paper shuffling can be painful to the ear. Problems related to noise can be minimized by making sure that all participants are reminded to keep their noise levels down. Advise all participants to keep their line on mute unless it is their turn to speak.

* Speak slowly.

During conference calls, everyone needs to speak slightly slower than normal. This is especially useful during video or web-based conferences. There are times when the audio is slightly off with the video and speaking slower than normal can help people understand what the speaker is saying better.

* Do not interrupt.

There is nothing more frustrating during conference calls than to have people cutting each other off. People having their own conversations while someone else is speaking can also be irritating. Make sure that there is a moderator who has the leadership role and can stop any side conversations as they start.

* Stick to the agenda.

The moderator needs to control the situation. When a discussion is going off topic, the participants need to be notified. Nobody wants to be stuck in a call that lasts hours and hours. It is important that everyone sticks to the agenda, speaks briefly and to the point, and any topics that come up on the fly need to be nipped in the bud.

* Take conference calls seriously.

Call conferencing is as important as any face to face meeting and needs to be regarded as such. Because participants are not physically face to face, some may tend to find excuses not to be present or join in late. It is important that all participants are reminded of the need for the calls. It is also important to keep things on schedule so that no one loses interest on the next call. If participants know that the call will start and end on time, they will be more likely to participate with enthusiasm.

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Advantages and Uses of Video Conferencing

Uses of Video conferencing

Video conferencing can be used in a host of different environments, which is one of the reasons the technology is so popular. General uses for video conferencing include business meetings, educational training or instruction and collaboration among health officials or other representatives. Thus far video conferencing has been used in the following fields:

- Telemedicine

Advantages and Uses of Video Conferencing

- Telecommunicatio

- Education

- Surveillance

- Security

- Emergency Response

Advantages and Benefits of Video conferencing

Perhaps the biggest advantage or benefit video conferencing has to offer is the ability to meet with people in remote locations without incurring travel expenses or other expenses associated with face to face communication. Business meetings, educational meetings, healthcare conferences and more can all be easily conducted thanks to video conferencing technology. Individuals living in remote areas can also use video conferencing to keep in touch if you will, with the world at large.

More people are easily accessed and contacted using video conferencing. Because of this technology information and knowledge are often disseminated at more rapid rates, and collaboration between people occurs more willingly and freely. Students can take advantage of video conferencing to take classes at distant locations that would normally be unavailable. They can also take classes that will accommodate busy schedules.

Video conferencing can stimulate better brainstorming, knowledge sharing and information gathering. Businesses can use video conferencing to provide presentations to key members of an organization or to solicit new clients in a professional manner, regardless of their location. The possibilities for communication are virtually endless thanks to video conferencing technologies.

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Organizational Change - Four Key Management Strategies For Leaders

Every leader faces the need for change. Determining the need for change is based on numerous internal and external factors. Once a leader has determined that change is necessary, he or she must be diligent in managing the change process. How a team is guided through the change process ultimately determines its success or failure. Thriving organizations have leaders who know how to manage the change process.

The following steps are essential components to successfully manage the change process:

Step 1: Set up an accountability system that clearly outlines who is responsible for each important aspect of the change process.

Organizational Change - Four Key Management Strategies For Leaders

Once a leader has determined that a significant organizational change is necessary, a change leader should be identified. The change leader is responsible for overseeing each aspect of the change cycle including planning, implementing, monitoring, and transitioning into routine business. The change leader must be empowered by senior leadership in order to succeed. A change leader must be able to direct resources and staff from all levels of an organization to effectively drive organizational change. For large initiatives, a change leader will need to assign responsible parties for each major action area. In addition, each individual action item should have a responsible party. Accountability is necessary to ensure that the change process is focused and driven. It is also key to include representatives from a variety of levels and job functions in change planning and implementation. It is impossible for a leader to predict the impact that changes will have on every level and facet of an organization. By including a variety of staff, a leader is able to obtain a clearer picture of how the organization will be affected and will be able to achieve the greatest degree of success while avoiding or minimizing any negative impact.
Step 2: Effectively communicate with the change team and others impacted by the change.

The flow of information in an organization is its life force. To maintain and improve the strength of the organization, information must be shared upward, laterally, and downward. Regular communication is vital to a successful change process. The following must be clearly communicated to staff:

Why the change is necessary for the organization? Ideally this will include an overview of external and internal factors driving the change and the benefits to the organization. Who will be responsible for the change process? This includes identifying the change leader as well as the key team members responsible for major action areas. What mechanisms will be used to implement the change? This involves a description of the work plan and group processes that will be used to design, implement, and monitor the change process. Where staff assistance is needed to facilitate the change process? This includes clearly outlining how job duties will be affected and what is expected of staff during the change process. How the organization is progressing toward the desired change objective(s). This communication should occur at a regular frequency throughout the change process. It is important for the above information to be communicated in a timely and understandable manner to all staff impacted by the change. In addition, it is recommended that multiple forms of communication be used, including verbal (e.g., conference calls, voice mail) and written (e.g., e-mails, memos). Written information, such as phone lists and process flow charts, are more critical for staff that will need to frequently reference the information during the change process.

Step 3: Support the team in the challenges related to the process. Implement a mechanism to quickly problem solve barriers and answer questions related to the change process.

Successful change is dependent on staff understanding, investment, and focus. A team needs to be supported through each aspect of the change process. The following table suggests areas and examples of appropriate staff support:

Tools needed to get the job done: · Providing staff with revised policies and procedures and detailed written instructions regarding the change. Information needed to proceed with change initiative: · Set up daily meetings or an electronic site (via intranet and/or e-mail) where staff can ask questions and obtain assistance with issues. Staff training related to the change: · Providing staff with training on new policies and procedures, changes in their job function, how to communicate the change internally and externally, etc. Timely response for urgent issues:· Set up a quick response system for immediate issues such as a telephone tree with cell phone and pager numbers by area of issue.
Step 4: Acknowledge employee and organizational successes.

It is very important to acknowledge employee and organizational successes during the change process. This allows employees to know that their efforts are making a difference. People want to know that there is a meaningful purpose and a productive outcome resulting from their investment of time and energy.

Leaders can easily make the mistake of focusing on what is left to do and not taking enough time to celebrate the gains that have been made. While understandable, this mistake can lead to a loss of staff investment in the change process. If staff begin to think that an objective is unachievable, or that the organization will never be satisfied, it can lead to a reduced intensity of effort and even loss of employees.

Below are a few examples to acknowledge accomplishments along the road to successful change:

Thank you notes to staff for their investment and hard work related to the change initiative. Celebrations involving food, such as a cake with an applicable message, being brought into a staff meeting. Certificates of achievement for noteworthy staff accomplishments. Small gifts such as pens, candy, or gift certificates for special contributions. Leaders reporting on successes during meetings or in written communication. Staff will appreciate knowing that their contributions are recognized by leadership. They will also know that their time and effort is positively contributing to the organizational achievement of stated change objectives.

Organizational Change - Four Key Management Strategies For Leaders
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Zohreh Piurek is the senior vice president of Piurek & Associates and a specialty consultant. She specializes in strategic planning, project management and leadership development. Piurek & Associates is a values-based firm specializing in the delivery of management consulting services to health and human service organizations. Zohreh can be contacted through Piurek & Associates' website at: http://www.piurek.com

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